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Domestic Water and Sanitation
May 1982
>> This Is USAID >> USAID Policy Papers >> Domestic Water and Sanitation
[Download original document] V. Water in the Context of General Economic Development
Development programs do not operate in a vacuum, and there are, of course, a variety of other factors and considerations that have a bearing on the nature and extent of USAID support for water and sanitation programs. More specifically, the need and demand for improved water supply and sanitation services can both affect and be affected by changes in other development sectors. Four such intersectoral linkages are highlighted below to illustrate the contextual issues that surround water and sanitation programs in developing countries.
A. Water, Sanitation and Natural Resources
The exploitation of natural resources may unintentionally diminish the availability and quality of water for domestic use. For instance, dam and irrigation projects may divert water supplies that would otherwise be available for domestic use.1
Domestic water supplies may be contaminated by municipal sewage, agricultural chemicals, or industrial wastes. The availability and quality of water can also be compromised by such development activities as irrigation, pesticide spraying, and vector-borne disease control programs.
The reverse is also true: water supply and sanitation practices can have a detrimental effect on the natural environment. The increased use of water that generally follows the provision of more convenient water sources can lead to the discharge of large volumes of potentially contaminated, untreated waste water which may create health and environmental problems. Environmentally sound and cost-effective wastewater and excreta disposal procedures must be a part of USAID-supported water supply programs.
B. Water, Sanitation, and Primary Health Care
Sound primary health care programs must incorporate a mix of activities, since neither improved water supply nor any other single health-promoting activity can by itself fully meet the health objectives of LDCs in any reasonable time frame. Although for many poorer countries water and sanitation programs may not be included in the initial primary health care services provided (because of cost, logistics, and other factors), improvements over time in water supply and sanitation are a necessary part of a comprehensive primary health care program. 2
Some aspects of water supply and sanitation can be incorporated readily into primary health care programs. Village health workers can be taught to recognize diseases that are caused by inadequate or poor water and sanitation and can learn to provide hygiene education as part of their preventive health activities. Community-level personnel can be trained to carry out simplified sanitary surveys and to provide encouragement and advice to communities for the construction of water supply and simple excreta disposal systems.
C. Water Supply, Sanitation, and Agriculture
Rural development activities can have both beneficial and detrimental effects on water supply and sanitation in developing countries. Programs to increase agricultural production and increase farm family income can enable rural families to pay for improved water and sanitation systems, and irrigation activities themselves may make greater quantities of water available for domestic use.
Irrigation programs can also have a directly detrimental effect on the quality of water available for domestic use: in many countries, large-scale irrigation programs have resulted in chemical contamination of domestic water supplies and in the spread of communicable disease. Careful local and regional planning which gives particular attention to possible environmental degradation is therefore essential.
D. Water Supply, Sanitation, and Urban Development
Rapid urbanization, a result of natural population increase and of rural- to urban-migration, has strained the already limited capacity of existing water supply and sanitation and other public service systems. In addition to the health sector programs cited earlier, USAID funds water supply and sanitation programs in urban areas through its shelter sector program.3 Sites and services programs provide utilities, including domestic water and sanitation; the construction of core housing generally includes water and sanitation facilities; slum upgrading projects often include improved water supplies, excreta disposal, and sewage treatment; and home improvement loans offered to property owners are frequently used to finance better domestic water supply and sanitation systems. Through its shelter program, USAID can help developing countries devise innovative and effective responses to the massive water supply and sanitation needs of third world cities.
Among the topics currently being addressed in USAID's research and development program in urban development that bear on water supply and sanitation are: improving the financial and managerial capacity of local government to provide essential services (including water supply and sanitation) efficiently and equitably; demonstrating the feasibility and economic viability of safe disposal, recycling, and production of useful byproducts from the wastes generated in secondary cities; and field testing a strategy to help cities increase efficiency in the consumption of important scarce resources (e.g., land, water, and energy).
E. Future Strategy Considerations
A number of strategy questions emerge for priority consideration by USAID For instance, the development of local financing systems for domestic water and sanitation programs is clearly an extremely important area for attention of economists and other development planners. Under what conditions is a user's fee preferable to a local tax to assuring continued operation of a common water system? Under what conditions should the government be prepared to contribute to the ongoing costs of water and sanitation programs, and what sort of government support is most effective? How reliable are government supported programs? Answers to these questions are critical to the maintenance and expansion of basic water systems in the developing world over the next several years.
Other topics on the Agency's strategy agenda include questions of program integration (e.g., under what conditions should water and sanitation activities accompany or precede other development interventions); community participation (e.g., what are the most practical ways of assuring meaningful community involvement in water programs); and suitable technology (e.g., what practical information is available to guide program planners in the selection among and adaptation of alternative small-scale technologies in the water and sanitation field). Work on these strategy questions will continue, as will efforts to collect and disseminate information that will allow the Agency to do a better job of targetting its water and sanitation programs to the most appropriate groups. Underlying all this effort and continuing attention is the recognition that water is not only a basic requirement of life but also contributes to overall economic growth and development. It is for both these reasons that USAID has supported and will continue to support the efforts of LDCs to assure basic water and sanitation services for their populations.
1The environmental assessment required by the Agency for all such projects under the provisions of 22 CFR 26, "USAID Environmental Procedures", should address this issue directly.
[return to text]2Primary Health Care: Report of the International Conference on Primary Health Care, Alma Ata, USSR, 6-12 September, 1978, Geneva: World Health Organization, 1978.
[return to text]3"Urbanization and the Urban Poor," U.S. Agency for International Development, Policy Determination 67, Supplement Handbook 1, 1976.
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